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relational aggression
Relational aggression, also known as covert aggression,〔Simon, George K.’’ In Sheep's Clothing: Understanding and Dealing with Manipulative People’’ 1996〕 or covert bullying〔McGrath, Mary Zabolio (2006). ‘’School Bullying: Tools for Avoiding Harm and Liability’’. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Corwin Press. pp. 21. ISBN 1-4129-1571-6. Retrieved 2008-09-04.〕 is a type of aggression in which harm is caused by damaging someone's relationships or social status.〔〔Marion K. Underwood (2003). ‘’Social Aggression among Girls (Guilford Series On Social And Emotional Development) ’’. New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230-865-6. Retrieved 2008-09-04〕 Although it can be used in many contexts and among different age groups, relational aggression among adolescents in particular has received a lot of attention. The attention this form of aggression has gotten has been augmented by the help of popular media, including movies like ''Mean Girls'' and books like ''Odd Girl Out'' by R. Simmons (2003), Nesthäkchen and the World War by Else Ury (1916), and ''Queen Bees and Wannabes'' by R. Wiseman (2003). Relational aggression can have various lifelong consequences. Relational aggression has been primarily observed and studied among girls.〔
== Overview ==
A person's peers become increasingly significant in adolescence and are especially important for adolescents' healthy psychological development. Peers provide many new behavioral models and feedback that is essential for successful identity formation and for the development of one’s sense of self.〔Brown, B. B., Clasen, D. R., , & Eicher, S. A. (1986). An adolescent's peers also have a large impact on peer pressure, peer conformity, dispositions, and self-reported behavior. ''Developmental Psychology'', 22(4), 521-530. 〕〔Brown, B. (2004) Adolescents' relationships with peers. In R. Lerner and L. Steinberg (Eds.), ''Handbook of adolescent psychology''. New York: Wiley.〕 Interactions with peers encourage positive practice of autonomy and independent decision-making skills.〔Hill, J. & Holmbeck, G. (1986) Attachment and autonomy during adolescence. In G. Whitehurst (Ed.), ''Annals of child development''. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press〕 They are also essential for healthy sexual development including the development of the capacity for intimate friendships and learning appropriate sexual behavior.〔Sullivan, H. S. (1953a) ''The interpersonal theory of psychiatry''. New York: Norton.〕 Peer relationships are also very important for determining how much adolescents value school, how much effort they put into it, and how well they perform in class.〔Epstein, J. (1983b) The influence of friends on achievement and affective outcomes. In J. Epstein & N. Karweit (Eds.), ''Friends in school''. New York: Academic Press.〕〔Ryan, A.M. (2001) The peer group as a context for the development of young adolescent motivation and achievement. ''Child Development, 72''(4), 1135-1150〕
However, quite frequently adolescents take part in peer relationships that are harmful for their psychological development. Adolescents tend to form various cliques and belong to different crowds based on their activity interests, music and clothing preferences, as well as their cultural or ethnic background.〔Brown, B., & Mounts, N. (1989, April). Peer groups structures in single versus multiethnic high schools. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research on Adolescence, San Diego〕 Such groups differ in their sociometric or popularity status, which often create unhealthy, aggression-victimization based dynamics between groups. Different forms of aggression can also be used to control dynamics and sociometric status within a group. Sometimes aggression is directed to an individual rather than to any apparent social group. Primary reasons for victimization include looks and speech; adolescents are also frequently bullied because of a disability, particular ethnicity, or religion.〔〔Klomek, A. B., Marrocco, F., Kleinman, M., Schonfeld, I. S., , & Gould, M. S. (2007). Bullying, Depression, and Suicidality in Adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(1), 40-49. 〕
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